Question

what is the meaning of the phrase \from scratch\ as it is used in the first sentence of the paragraph?
a following a set of existing directions
b using several individual parts
c again in a new and different way
d without having previous information

Explanation:

The phrase "from scratch" means to start something with no prior foundation or existing information. Option A is incorrect as following existing directions is the opposite of starting from scratch. Option B is incorrect as using individual parts doesn't relate to the meaning of starting from nothing. Option C is incorrect as "again in a new way" implies redoing, not starting from nothing. Option D, "without having previous information", matches the meaning of "from scratch" (starting with no prior basis).

Answer:

D. without having previous information